Includes summary in Dutch.

Includes bibliographical references.

"This dissertation draws on theoretical and empirical research to answer a question that continues to puzzle many who are involved or interested in second or foreign language teaching: Why is there little target language spoken in the secondary school language classroom? The question stems from the generally accepted notion that one needs to practice speaking the foreign language to learn to speak the language but that instruction focuses on memorizing grammar rules despite the need for developing oral abilities. How instruction is delivered, in terms of the discourse patterns established by teachers, is linked to the type of learning that occurs. Teachers who follow IRF patterns of interaction, or 'monologic discourse' promote the memorization of facts, and teachers who ask open-ended questions, or 'dialogic discourse' stimulate higher order thinking. Our qualitative research, conducted in the framework of sociocultural theory in three teachers' classrooms, examined the relationship between patterns of classroom discourse and teachers' beliefs about how languages are learned and how they should be taught in the context of the classroom and school. The data revealed that the teachers' beliefs, and thus language use, are the result of a complex and often implicit interaction between the teacher's beliefs and those of the students, faculty and school. School policy and culture play a role in reinforcing certain beliefs and this interplay between the teacher's beliefs and those of the school results in some teaching practices being encouraged over others, as observed in the type of discourse that occurred in the three classrooms. If changes are to be made so that dialogic discourse in classrooms can flourish and communicative competency can be achieved, teachers' beliefs need to be examined, challenged and possibly changed. Yet given that teachers work within a system, changes pertain equally to the students, faculty and school policy that make up the complex environment in which they work." (Abstract)

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

1.2 RESEARCHER’S BACKGROUND

1.3 THE PROBLEM OF LITTLE TARGET LANGUAGE USE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL CLASSROOM
1.3.1 The importance of spoken language skills: The Dutch context
1.3.2 The importance of spoken language skills: The international context

1.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1.4.1 The extent of target language use 1.4.2 How teachers use the target language 1.4.3 Why teachers use the target language the way they do

1.5 THE GENERAL APPROACH OF THE STUDY

1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 THEORIES ON INTERACTION IN SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.2.1 Krashen’s Input Hypothesis
2.2.2 Long’s Interaction Hypothesis 2.2.3 Swain’s Output Hypothesis 2.2.4 In search of a theory that addresses the context of the SL/FL classroom

2.3 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 2.3.1 The life and work of Vygotsky

2.4 CORE CONCEPTS OF SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 2.4.1 Mediation 2.4.2 Regulation 2.4.3 Zone of proximal development (ZPD) 2.4.4 Inner and private speech 2.4.5 Activity Theory
2.4.6 Interaction and sociocultural theory

2.5 IN SEARCH OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERACTION 2.5.1 Research into language and language learning 2.5.2 Attributes of teaching that enhance language learning 2.5.3 Defining interaction

2.6 CONCLUSION TO THIS SECTION

2.7 BELIEFS SEEN FROM THE FRAMEWORK OF SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 2.7.1 Teacher practices, sociocultural factors and beliefs 2.7.2 Beliefs and knowledge 2.7.3 Teachers' beliefs and teaching practices 2.7.4 Students’ beliefs, school culture, teaching methods and exams

2.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 METHODOLOGY IN SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY PERSPECTIVE
3.2.1 Beliefs and knowledge 3.2.2 The genetic approach

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.3.1 Case studies 3.3.2 The researcher’s role 3.3.3 Selection of the teachers

3.4 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

3.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 3.5.1 Genetic analysis 3.5.2 Grounded theory

3.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY ONE – HANK

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 DESIGN
4.2.2 Research context
4.2.3 Methods for data collection and analysis

4.3 FINDINGS 4.3.1 Question one: To what extent does Hank use the target language? 4.3.2 Question two: How does Hank use the target language? 4.3.3 Question three: Why does Hank use the target language the way he does?

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY TWO – HENRY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 DESIGN 5.2.1 Selection of the teacher 5.2.2 Research context
5.2.3 Methods for data collection and analysis

5.3 FINDINGS 5.3.1 Question one: To what extent does Henry use the target language?
5.3.2 Question two: Is the target language use monologic or dialogic?
5.3.3 Question three: What is the relationship between the teacher’s, students’ and school’s beliefs and the discourse patterns established by Henry?

5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

130 CHAPTER 6: CASE STUDY THREE – LEN

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 DESIGN
6.2.1 Selection of teacher 6.2.2 Research context 6.2.3 Methods for data collection and analysis

6.3 FINDINGS
6.3.1 Question one: To what extent does Len use the target language?
6.3.2 Question two: Is the target language use monologic or dialogic?
6.3.3 Question three: What is the relationship between the teacher’s, students’ and school’s beliefs and the discourse patterns established by Len?

6.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH SUMMARY, CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS AND EMERGENCE OF THEORIES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH BACKGROUND, QUESTIONS, METHODS AND FINDINGS OF THE THREE CASE STUDIES

7.2.1 Research background
7.2.2 Research questions and methods 7.2.3 Findings

7.3 CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS 7.3.1 Similarities between the case studies
7.3.2 Differences between the case studies
7.3.3 Conclusion to this section

7.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A ‘SMALL-SCALE’ THEORY 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Review of the teachers’ beliefs
7.4.3 Why there is little target language use in the language classroom 7.4.4 Why there is little dialogic discourse in the classroom
7.4.5 Conclusion to this section

7.5 RELATED FACETS OF SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
7.5.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 7.5.2 Activity Theory

7.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 CONCLUSIONS

8.3 DISCUSSION 8.3.1 Relevancy 8.3.2 Strengths 8.3.3 Limitations 8.3.4 Further research
8.3.5 The present study in the context of related research

8.4 CONCLUSION TO THIS CHAPTER

NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING

REFERENCES

CURRICULUM VITAE